1. An Introduction to Matter and Measurement

• 1.1 An Introduction to Chemistry and the Scientific Method
  • 1.1.1 An Introduction to Chemistry
  • 1.1.2 The Scientific Method

• 1.2 Properties of Matter
  • 1.2.1 States of Matter
  • 1.2.2 A Word About Laboratory Safety
  • 1.2.3 CIA Demonstration: Differences in Density Due to Temperature
  • 1.2.4 Properties of Matter

• 1.3 Scientific Measurement
  • 1.3.1 The Measurement of Matter
  • 1.3.2 Precision and Accuracy
  • 1.3.3 CIA Demonstration: Precision and Accuracy with Glassware
  • 1.3.4 Significant Figures
  • 1.3.5 Dimensional Analysis

• 1.4 Mathematics of Chemistry
  • 1.4.1 Scientific (Exponential) Notation
  • 1.4.2 Common Mathematical Functions

2. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

• 2.1 Early Atomic Theory
  • 2.1.1 Early Discoveries and the Atom
  • 2.1.2 Understanding Electrons
  • 2.1.3 Understanding the Nucleus

• 2.2 Atomic Structure
  • 2.2.1 Mass Spectrometry: Determining Atomic Masses
  • 2.2.2 Examining Atomic Structure
  • 2.2.3 CIA Demonstration: Flame Colors

• 2.3 The Periodic Table
  • 2.3.1 Creating the Periodic Table

• 2.4 Chemical Nomenclature
  • 2.4.1 Describing Chemical Formulas
  • 2.4.2 Naming Chemical Compounds
  • 2.4.3 Organic Nomenclature

3. Stoichiometry

• 3.1 Chemical Equations
  • 3.1.1 An Introduction to Chemical Reactions and Equations
  • 3.1.2 CIA Demonstration: Magnesium and Dry Ice
  • 3.1.3 Balancing Chemical Equations

• 3.2 The Mole
  • 3.2.1 The Mole and Avogadro's Number
  • 3.2.2 Introducing Conversions of Masses, Moles, and Number of Particles

• 3.3 Solving Problems Involving Mass/Mole Relationships
  • 3.3.1 Finding Empirical and Molecular Formulas
  • 3.3.2 Stoichiometry and Chemical Equations
  • 3.3.3 Finding Limiting Reagents
  • 3.3.4 CIA Demonstration: Self-Inflating Hydrogen Balloons
  • 3.3.5 Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield
  • 3.3.6 A Problem Using the Combined Concepts of Stoichiometry

4. Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

• 4.1 An Introduction to Solutions
  • 4.1.1 Properties of Solutions
  • 4.1.2 CIA Demonstration: The Electric Pickle
  • 4.1.3 Concentrations of Solutions
  • 4.1.4 Factors Determining Solubility

• 4.2 Reactions Involving Solutions
  • 4.2.1 Precipitation Reactions
  • 4.2.2 Acid-Base Reactions
  • 4.2.3 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

• 4.3 Stoichiometry Problems in Solutions
  • 4.3.1 Acid-Base Titrations
  • 4.3.2 Solving Titration Problems
  • 4.3.3 Gravimetric Analysis

5. Gases

• 5.1 Gases and Gas Laws
  • 5.1.1 Properties of Gases
  • 5.1.2 Boyle's Law
  • 5.1.3 Charles's Law
  • 5.1.4 The Combined Gas Law
  • 5.1.5 Avogadro's Law
  • 5.1.6 CIA Demonstration: The Potato Cannon

• 5.2 The Ideal Gas Law and Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases
  • 5.2.1 The Ideal Gas Law
  • 5.2.2 Partial Pressure and Dalton's Law
  • 5.2.3 Applications of the Gas Laws
  • 5.2.4 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases
  • 5.2.5 CIA Demonstration: The Ammonia Fountain

• 5.3 Molecular Motion of Gases
  • 5.3.1 Molecular Speeds
  • 5.3.2 Effusion and Diffusion

• 5.4 Behavior of Real Gases
  • 5.4.1 Comparing Real and Ideal Gases

6. Thermochemistry

• 6.1 An Introduction to Energy
  • 6.1.1 The Nature of Energy
  • 6.1.2 Energy, Calories, and Nutrition
  • 6.1.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
  • 6.1.4 Work
  • 6.1.5 Heat
  • 6.1.6 CIA Demonstration: Cool Fire

• 6.2 Enthalpy
  • 6.2.1 Heats of Reaction: Enthalpy
  • 6.2.2 CIA Demonstration: The Thermite Reaction

• 6.3 Calorimetry
  • 6.3.1 Constant Pressure Calorimetry
  • 6.3.2 Bomb Calorimetry (Constant Volume)

• 6.4 Hess's Law and Enthalpies of Formation
  • 6.4.1 Hess's Law
  • 6.4.2 Enthalpies of Formation

7. Modern Atomic Theory

• 7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation and the Idea of Quantum
  • 7.1.1 The Wave Nature of Light
  • 7.1.2 Absorption and Emission
  • 7.1.3 CIA Demonstration: Luminol
  • 7.1.4 The Ultraviolet Catastrophe
  • 7.1.5 The Photoelectric Effect
  • 7.1.6 The Bohr Model
  • 7.1.7 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

• 7.2 Quantum Mechanics
  • 7.2.1 The Wave Nature of Matter
  • 7.2.2 Radial Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation
  • 7.2.3 Angular Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation

• 7.3 Atomic Orbitals
  • 7.3.1 Atomic Orbital Size
  • 7.3.2 Atomic Orbital Shapes and Quantum Numbers
  • 7.3.3 Atomic Orbital Energy

8. Electron Configurations and Periodicity

• 8.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle
  • 8.1.1 Understanding Electron Spin
  • 8.1.2 Electron Shielding
  • 8.1.3 Electron Configurations Through Neon
  • 8.1.4 Electron Configurations Beyond Neon
  • 8.1.5 Periodic Relationships

• 8.2 Periodicity
  • 8.2.1 Periods and Atomic Size
  • 8.2.2 Ionization Energy
  • 8.2.3 Electron Affinity
  • 8.2.4 An Introduction to Electronegativity

• 8.3 Group Trends
  • 8.3.1 Hydrogen, Alkali Metals, and Alkaline Earth Metals
  • 8.3.2 Transition Metals and Nonmetals

9. Chemical Bonding: Fundamental Concepts

• 9.1 Valence Electrons and Chemical Bonding
  • 9.1.1 Valence Electrons and Chemical Bonding
  • 9.1.2 Ionic Bonds
  • 9.1.3 CIA Demonstration: Conductivity Apparatus-Ionic versus Covalent Bonds

• 9.2 Lewis Dot Structures
  • 9.2.1 Lewis Dot Structures for Covalent Bonds
  • 9.2.2 Predicting Lewis Dot Structures

• 9.3 Resonance Structures and Formal Charge
  • 9.3.1 Resonance Structures
  • 9.3.2 Formal Charge
  • 9.3.3 Electronegativity, Formal Charge, and Resonance

• 9.4 Bond Properties
  • 9.4.1 Bond Properties
  • 9.4.2 Using Bond Dissociation Energies

10. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theory

• 10.1 Molecular Geometry and the VSEPR Theory
  • 10.1.1 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory
  • 10.1.2 Molecular Shapes for Steric Numbers 2-4
  • 10.1.3 Molecular Shapes for Steric Numbers 5 & 6
  • 10.1.4 Predicting Molecular Characteristics Using VSEPR Theory

• 10.2 Valence Bond Theory and Molecular Orbital Theory
  • 10.2.1 Valence Bond Theory
  • 10.2.2 An Introduction to Hybrid Orbitals
  • 10.2.3 Pi Bonds
  • 10.2.4 Molecular Orbital Theory
  • 10.2.5 Applications of the Molecular Orbital Theory
  • 10.2.6 Beyond Homonuclear Diatomics
  • 10.2.7 CIA Demonstration: The Paramagnetism of Oxygen

11. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

• 11.1 Looking In-Depth at Redox Reactions
  • 11.1.1 Oxidation Numbers
  • 11.1.2 Balancing Redox Reactions by the Oxidation Number Method
  • 11.1.3 Balancing Redox Reactions Using the Half-Reaction Method
  • 11.1.4 The Activity Series of the Elements
  • 11.1.5 CIA Demonstration: The Reaction Between Al and Br₂

12. Condensed Phases: Liquids and Solids

• 12.1 Intermolecular Forces
  • 12.1.1 An Introduction to Intermolecular Forces and States of Matter
  • 12.1.2 Intermolecular Forces

• 12.2 Physical Properties of Liquids
  • 12.2.1 Properties of Liquids
  • 12.2.2 CIA Demonstration: Boiling Water at Reduced Pressure
  • 12.2.3 Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point
  • 12.2.4 Molecular Structure and Boiling Point
  • 12.2.5 Phase Diagrams
  • 12.2.6 CIA Demonstration: Boiling Water in a Paper Cup

• 12.3 Solid State: Structure and Bonding
  • 12.3.1 Types of Solids
  • 12.3.2 CIA Demonstration: The Conductivity of Molten Salts
  • 12.3.3 Crystal Structure
  • 12.3.4 Calculating Atomic Mass and Radius from a Unit Cell
  • 12.3.5 Crystal Packing

• 12.4 Ceramics
  • 12.4.1 Ceramics and Glass
  • 12.4.2 CIA Demonstration: Superconductivity

13. Physical Properties of Solutions

• 13.1 Characterizing Solutions
  • 13.1.1 Types of Solutions
  • 13.1.2 Molarity and the Mole Fraction
  • 13.1.3 Molality
  • 13.1.4 Energy and the Solution Process

• 13.2 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility
  • 13.2.1 Temperature Change and Solubility
  • 13.2.2 Extractions
  • 13.2.3 Pressure Change and Solubility

• 13.3 Colligative Properties
  • 13.3.1 Vapor Pressure Lowering
  • 13.3.2 Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression
  • 13.3.3 Boiling Point Elevation Problem
  • 13.3.4 Osmosis
  • 13.3.5 Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutions

• 13.4 Colloids
  • 13.4.1 Colloid Formation and Flocculation
  • 13.4.2 CIA Demonstration: The Tyndall Effect

14. Chemical Kinetics

• 14.1 Reaction Rates
  • 14.1.1 An Introduction to Reaction Rates
  • 14.1.2 Rate Laws: How the Reaction Rate Depends on Concentration
  • 14.1.3 Determining the Form of a Rate Law

• 14.2 Orders of Reaction
  • 14.2.1 First-Order Reactions
  • 14.2.2 Second-Order Reactions
  • 14.2.3 A Kinetics Problem

• 14.3 Temperature and Rates
  • 14.3.1 The Collision Model
  • 14.3.2 The Arrhenius Equation
  • 14.3.3 Using the Arrhenius Equation

• 14.4 Reaction Mechanisms
  • 14.4.1 Defining the Molecularity of a Reaction
  • 14.4.2 Determining the Rate Laws of Elementary Reactions
  • 14.4.3 Calculating the Rate Laws of Multi-step Reactions
  • 14.4.4 Steady State Kinetics

• 14.5 Catalysts
  • 14.5.1 Catalysts and Types of Catalysts
  • 14.5.2 A Word About Laboratory Safety
  • 14.5.3 CIA Demonstration: Elephant Snot
  • 14.5.4 CIA Demonstration: The Cobalt(II)-Catalyzed Reaction of Potassium Sodium Tartrate
  • 14.5.5 CIA Demonstration: The Copper-Catalyzed Decomposition of Acetone

15. Chemical Equilibrium

• 15.1 Principles of Chemical Equilibrium
  • 15.1.1 The Concept of Equilibrium
  • 15.1.2 The Law of Mass Action and Types of Equilibrium
  • 15.1.3 Converting Between K_c and K_p

• 15.2 Using Equilibrium Constants
  • 15.2.1 Approaching Chemical Equilibrium
  • 15.2.2 Predicting the Direction of a Reaction
  • 15.2.3 Strategies for Solving Equilibrium Problems
  • 15.2.4 Solving Problems Far from Equilibrium
  • 15.2.5 An Equilibrium Problem Using the Quadratic Equation

• 15.3 Shifting Chemical Equilibrium
  • 15.3.1 Le Châtelier's Principle
  • 15.3.2 The Effect of Changing Amounts on Equilibrium
  • 15.3.3 The Effects of Pressure and Volume on Equilibrium
  • 15.3.4 The Effects of Temperature and Catalysts on Equilibrium
  • 15.3.5 CIA Demonstration: NO₂/N₂O₄
  • 15.3.6 CIA Demonstration: Shifting the Equilibrium of FeSCN²⁺

16. Acids and Bases

• 16.1 Acid-Base Concepts
  • 16.1.1 Arrhenius/Brønsted-Lowry Definitions of Acids and Bases
  • 16.1.2 Hydronium, Hydroxide, and the pH Scale

• 16.2 Acid and Base Strengths
  • 16.2.1 Strong Acids and Bases
  • 16.2.2 CIA Demonstration: Natural Acid-Base Indicators
  • 16.2.3 Weak Acids
  • 16.2.4 Weak Bases
  • 16.2.5 Lewis Acids and Bases
  • 16.2.6 Trends in Acid and Base Strengths

• 16.3 Polyprotic Acids
  • 16.3.1 Examining Polyprotic Acids

• 16.4 Acid-Base Properties of Salts
  • 16.4.1 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions

17. Equilibrium in Aqueous Solution

• 17.1 Reactions of Acids and Bases
  • 17.1.1 Strong Acid-Strong Base and Weak Acid-Strong Base Reactions
  • 17.1.2 Strong Acid-Weak Base and Weak Acid-Weak Base Reactions
  • 17.1.3 The Common Ion Effect

• 17.2 Buffers
  • 17.2.1 An Introduction to Buffers
  • 17.2.2 CIA Demonstration: Buffers in Action
  • 17.2.3 Acidic Buffers
  • 17.2.4 Basic Buffers
  • 17.2.5 The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

• 17.3 Acid-Base Titration
  • 17.3.1 Strong Acid-Strong Base Titration
  • 17.3.2 CIA Demonstration: Barium Hydroxide-Sulfuric Acid Titration
  • 17.3.3 Weak Acid-Strong Base Titration
  • 17.3.4 Polyprotic Acid-Strong Base Titration
  • 17.3.5 Weak Base-Strong Acid Titration
  • 17.3.6 Acid-Base Indicators

• 17.4 Solubility Equilibria
  • 17.4.1 The Solubility Product Constant
  • 17.4.2 CIA Demonstration: Silver Chloride and Ammonia
  • 17.4.3 Solubility and the Common Ion Effect
  • 17.4.4 Fractional Precipitation
  • 17.4.5 The Effects of pH on Solubility

• 17.5 Complex Ion Equilibria
  • 17.5.1 The Formation of Complex Ions
  • 17.5.2 Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides

18. Introduction to Organic Reactions

• 18.1 Acid Strength in Organic Molecules
  • 18.1.1 An Introduction to Reactivity
  • 18.1.2 Bond Strengths
  • 18.1.3 Inductive Effects
  • 18.1.4 Hybridization Effects
  • 18.1.5 Resonance Effects
  • 18.1.6 Solvent Effects: Acid Dissociation versus Proton Affinity

• 18.2 Base Strength in Organic Molecules
  • 18.2.1 A Review of Relationship Between Acids and Conjugate Bases
  • 18.2.2 Strengths of Organic Bases
  • 18.2.3 Solvent Effects on Organic Base Strength

• 18.3 Lewis Acid and Base Reactions
  • 18.3.1 Lewis Acids and the Formation of Acid-Base Adducts
  • 18.3.2 Oxides as Lewis Acids

• 18.4 Introduction to Electrophiles and Nucleophiles
  • 18.4.1 Nucleophilic Substitution at sp³ Carbon
  • 18.4.2 Nucleophilic Substitution at sp² Carbon
  • 18.4.3 Elimination Reactions
  • 18.4.4 CIA Demonstration: Slime

19. Thermodynamics

• 19.1 An Introduction to Thermodynamics
  • 19.1.1 Spontaneous Processes

• 19.2 Entropy
  • 19.2.1 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
  • 19.2.2 Entropy and Temperature

• 19.3 Gibbs Free Energy and Free Energy Change
  • 19.3.1 Gibbs Free Energy
  • 19.3.2 Standard Free Energy Changes of Formation

• 19.4 Using Free Energy
  • 19.4.1 Enthalpy and Entropy Contributions to K
  • 19.4.2 The Temperature Dependence of K
  • 19.4.3 Free Energy Away from Equilibrium

20. Electrochemistry

• 20.1 Principles of Electrochemistry
  • 20.1.1 Reviewing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

• 20.2 Galvanic Cells
  • 20.2.1 Electrochemical Cells
  • 20.2.2 Electromotive Force
  • 20.2.3 Standard Reduction Potentials
  • 20.2.4 Using Standard Reduction Potentials
  • 20.2.5 The Nernst Equation
  • 20.2.6 Electrochemical Determinants of Equilibria

• 20.3 Batteries
  • 20.3.1 Batteries
  • 20.3.2 CIA Demonstration: The Fruit-Powered Clock

• 20.4 Corrosion
  • 20.4.1 Corrosion and the Prevention of Corrosion

• 20.5 Electrolysis and Electrolytic Cells
  • 20.5.1 Electrolytic Cells
  • 20.5.2 The Stoichiometry of Electrolysis

21. Nuclear Chemistry

• 21.1 Radioactivity
  • 21.1.1 The Nature of Radioactivity
  • 21.1.2 The Stability of Atomic Nuclei
  • 21.1.3 Binding Energy

• 21.2 Rates of Disintegration
  • 21.2.1 Rates of Disintegration Reactions
  • 21.2.2 Radiochemical Dating

• 21.3 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
  • 21.3.1 Nuclear Fission
  • 21.3.2 Nuclear Fusion
  • 21.3.3 Applications of Nuclear Chemistry

22. Chemistry of Metals

• 22.1 An Introduction to Metals
  • 22.1.1 Metallurgical Processes
  • 22.1.2 The Band Theory of Conductivity
  • 22.1.3 Intrinsic Semiconductors
  • 22.1.4 Doped Semiconductors

• 22.2 Physical and Chemical Processes of Metals
  • 22.2.1 The Alkali Metals
  • 22.2.2 The Alkaline Earth Metals
  • 22.2.3 Aluminum
  • 22.2.4 CIA Demonstration: The Reaction Between Al and Br₂

23. Transition Metals

• 23.1 Examining Transition Metals
  • 23.1.1 Properties of Transition Metals
  • 23.1.2 CIA Demonstration: Copper One-Pot Reactions

• 23.2 Coordination Compounds
  • 23.2.1 Complexes and Ligands
  • 23.2.2 Naming Coordination Compounds
  • 23.2.3 Structures of Coordination Compounds and Isomers

• 23.3 Bonding in Coordination Compounds
  • 23.3.1 Color and Transition Metals
  • 23.3.2 Crystal Field Theory
  • 23.3.3 Ligand Field Theory
  • 23.3.4 Magnetic Properties and Spin

24. Nonmetals

• 24.1 An Introduction to Nonmetals and Hydrogen
  • 24.1.1 General Properties of Nonmetals
  • 24.1.2 Hydrogen

• 24.2 Group 14: Carbon and Silicon
  • 24.2.1 General Properties of Carbon
  • 24.2.2 Silicon

• 24.3 Group 15: Nitrogen and Phosphorus
  • 24.3.1 Nitrogen
  • 24.3.2 Phosphorus

• 24.4 Group 16: Oxygen and Sulfur
  • 24.4.1 Oxygen
  • 24.4.2 CIA Demonstration: Creating Acid Rain
  • 24.4.3 Sulfur

• 24.5 Group 17: The Halogens
  • 24.5.1 Halogens
  • 24.5.2 Aqueous Halogen Compounds

• 24.6 Group 18: The Noble Gases
  • 24.6.1 Properties of Noble Gases

25. Organic Chemistry

• 25.1 Hydrocarbons
  • 25.1.1 Alkanes
  • 25.1.2 Alkenes and Alkynes
  • 25.1.3 Isomers
  • 25.1.4 Aromatic Hydrocarbons

• 25.2 The Functional Groups
  • 25.2.1 Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines
  • 25.2.2 Carbonyl-Containing Functional Groups

• 25.3 Organic Polymers
  • 25.3.1 Organic Polymers
  • 25.3.2 CIA Demonstration: The Synthesis of Nylon

26. Biochemistry

• 26.1 Biological Molecules
  • 26.1.1 Proteins
  • 26.1.2 Nucleic Acids
  • 26.1.3 Carbohydrates
  • 26.1.4 Lipids

27. Instructional Laboratory Demonstrations

• 27.1 Laboratory Techniques
  • 27.1.1 CIA Demonstration: Laboratory Safety
  • 27.1.2 CIA Demonstration: Chromatography
  • 27.1.3 CIA Demonstration: Distillation
  • 27.1.4 CIA Demonstration: Pipetting
  • 27.1.5 CIA Demonstration: Dilutions
  • 27.1.6 CIA Demonstration: Titrations
  • 27.1.7 CIA Demonstration: Extractions
  • 27.1.8 CIA Demonstration: Filtrations
  • 27.1.9 CIA Demonstration: Weighing on an Analytical Balance
  • 27.1.10 CIA Demonstration: Recrystallization